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Instituto do Coração (InCor), Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-010, Brazil
Received: 13 February 2023 / Revised: 2 April 2023 / Accepted: 3 April 2023 / Published: 5 April 2023
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Despite significant improvements in diagnostic modalities and therapeutic options over the past few decades, the global burden of coronary heart disease continues to increase and remains the leading cause of death worldwide. Therefore, new strategies to reduce cardiovascular events are needed. Research in various fields such as biotechnology and tissue engineering has developed new therapeutic strategies such as stem cells, nanotechnology and robotic surgery (3D printing and medicine). In addition, advances in bioengineering have led to new diagnostic and prognostic techniques such as quantitative flow ratio (QFR) and biomarkers for atherosclerosis. In this review, we examine new invasive and non-invasive diagnostic modalities that enable more detailed characterization of coronary artery disease. We will delve into new technological revascularization procedures and pharmacologic agents that target various residual cardiovascular risks, including inflammatory, thrombotic, and metabolic pathways.
Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the most common type of heart disease, killing approximately 380,000 people in 2020 [1]. Treatment of CAD includes lifestyle changes, risk factor management, medications, and invasive procedures (percutaneous or surgical), depending on the presence of symptoms, extent, or clinical presentation of the disease (acute or chronic). Recently, new technologies have promoted significant advances in the diagnosis and treatment of CAD. These technologies include physiological assessment of CHD, which complements anatomical assessment findings; cardiac biomarkers; and microRNAs that aid in the detection of CAD. New drugs have been able to reduce cardiovascular events and advances in invasive treatment. Using robotics, shock waves, nanotechnology, stem cells, and three-dimensional printing can be useful to visualize the extent of coronary occlusion and stenosis (middle illustration). In this article, we review the literature on recent advances in therapeutic strategies and diagnostic methods for CAD.
2. Diagnosis and evaluation of ischemic heart disease “But there is an involvement of the chest marked by strong and special symptoms, significant for the type of danger that belongs to it (…). The seat and the feeling of suffocation and anxiety that are can cause it to be called angina pectoris.” [2].
Since Heberden’s description in 1772 [2], our understanding of CAD has greatly expanded. Its characteristics, natural history, and pathological features have been studied in detail, and methods for more thorough clinical evaluation are still emerging. In 1958, the first selective coronary arteriogram was performed by Dr. F. Mason Sones, which became a cornerstone of CAD evaluation [3]. Cumulative findings have laid the foundation for a rapidly growing field, and new methods in the assessment of CHD are helping physicians more accurately estimate the burden of disease in their patients.
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CAD can be assessed by anatomical or functional methods. The first depends on observing disease by detecting physical obstructions to blood flow. The key to the anatomical method is coronary angiography, which displays the anatomy of the coronary arteries using contrast agents and radiation. In the same premises, but with the advantage of a non-invasive method, coronary computed tomography (CCT) is increasingly used in a wider range of scenarios. In addition to luminal assessment, CCT provides insight into the vascular structure beyond the degree of obstruction and allows the assessment of the coronary artery calcium (CAC) score, an important prognostic tool with the ability to reclassify patients during primary prevention. Intracoronary imaging methods were also developed, and intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) were incorporated into clinical practice. Recently, plaque evaluation technology has been developed, and a new technique in this field is near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) (Table 1).
Coronary angiography is not accurate for evaluating the function of coronary lesions; Stenosis considered severe on angiographic examination often does not restrict coronary blood flow at rest or with maximal dilation. Physiological examination of CHD makes it possible to complement the findings of the anatomical assessment. Perhaps the most common method of physiological examination is the exercise electrocardiogram (ECG). A resting ECG can provide clues about CHD, such as signs of previous events or ischemic changes; however, in stable patients, changes are unlikely to occur without being higher than basal metabolic need, as this barrier is fixed in this scenario. Imaging methods such as stress echocardiography, single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) or positron emission tomography (PET) have proven to be a more accurate way to assess ischemia. Despite different ischemia induction techniques, all these methods have an ischemia detection accuracy of more than 80% [4]. As such, perfusion stress methods SPECT and CMR have become almost universally used for noninvasive functional assessment, allowing the characterization of specific ischemic segments of the myocardium, particularly in individuals with suspected CHD at possible intermediate risk. Invasive functional assessment has also been developed, and catheter-based methods such as fractional flow reserve (FFR), instantaneous free ratio (iFR), coronary flow reserve (CFR), and quantitative flow ratio (QFR) have been added to the CAD arsenal. evaluation tool. In addition, non-invasive methods have been developed to analyze the special functions of plaques; FFR and similar measurements can be made using CCT (Table 2).
Finally, biomarkers have been investigated to aid in the detection of CAD. In this context, circulating microRNAs have been proposed as potential targets. In addition, perivascular fat depletion has recently been studied to be associated with the activation of a local immune-inflammatory response that is closely related to plaque susceptibility [5]. Some of the above methods are described in more detail below.
Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) plays an important role in recent interventional developments. This requires not only anatomical assessment of lesion severity and plaque morphology, but also better stent placement and assessment of intrastent obstruction [8]. In addition, IVUS is a valuable tool for the evaluation of patients with myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA).
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IVUS technology is based on obtaining an intravascular image using a transducer at the tip of the catheter during an interventional coronary angiogram (ICA), which creates a cross-sectional view of the artery. The IVUS wave passes through the blood and then successively through the layers of the artery: the intima (which partly reflects this wave and creates a clear image), the media (usually dark) and the adventitia (also light). The cross-sectional nature of the image allows a better assessment of plaque anatomy compared to ICA alone. The presence and degree of calcification in the lesion of interest can also be assessed. IVUS is particularly useful for detecting dissections and eccentric plaques not visible on ICA, which may be the mechanism for MINOCA detected on angiograms. Several clinical studies have evaluated its usefulness in clinical practice [10, 11, 12]. Assessment of minimal lumen area (MLA) by intravascular imaging can be a surrogate for the assessment of ischemia [13, 14]. Park et al. demonstrated that IVUS-derived MLA of the ostial main coronary artery and left intermediate artery ≤4.5 mm in patients with isolated stenosis.
Useful index of fractional fluid reserve (FFR) ≤0.80 [14]. However, this amount varies according to
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